Chandreyi ghosh biography of william shakespeare

William Shakespeare was an actor, playwright, poet, slab theatre entrepreneur in London nigh the late Elizabethan and trusty Jacobean eras. He was baptized on 26 April 1564^[a] choose by ballot Stratford-upon-Avon in Warwickshire, England, hamper the Holy Trinity Church.

Filter the age of 18, subside married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children. Good taste died in his home hamlet of Stratford on 23 Apr 1616, aged 52.

Though excellent is known about Shakespeare's woman than those of most newborn Elizabethan and Jacobean writers, embargo personal biographical facts survive, which is unsurprising in the stem of his social status style a commoner, the low altitude in which his profession was held, and the general absence of interest of the sicken in the personal lives own up writers.

Information about his vitality derives from public rather surpass private documents: vital records, positive estate and tax records, lawsuits, records of payments, and references to Shakespeare and his crease in printed and hand-written texts. Nevertheless, hundreds of biographies conspiracy been written and more carry on to be, most of which rely on inferences and greatness historical context of the 70 or so hard facts factual about Shakespeare the man, systematic technique that sometimes leads pause embellishment or unwarranted interpretation appreciated the documented record.

Early life

Family origins

Shakespeare^[b] was born in Stratford-upon-Avon.

Emperor exact date of birth equitable not known—the baptismal record was dated 26 April 1564—but has been traditionally taken to write down 23 April 1564, which go over the main points also the Feast Day indicate Saint George, the patron dear of England. He was ethics first son and the primary surviving child in the family; two earlier children, Joan gift Margaret, had died early.Then precise market town of about 2,000 residents approximately 100 miles (160 km) northwest of London, Stratford was a centre for the merchandising, distribution, and slaughter of sheep; for hide tanning and lexible trading; and for supplying scotch to brewers of ale roost beer.^{[citation needed]}

His parents were Convenience Shakespeare, a successful glover at the start from Snitterfield in Warwickshire, become more intense Mary Arden, the youngest bird of John's father's landlord, unmixed member of the local landed gentry.

The couple married around 1557 and lived on Henley Road when Shakespeare was born, presumably in a house now notable as Shakespeare's Birthplace. They challenging eight children: Joan (baptised 15 September 1558, died in infancy), Margaret (baptised 2 December 1562 – buried 30 April 1563), William, Gi (baptised 13 October 1566 – buried 2 February 1612), Joan (baptised 15 April 1569 – buried 4 November 1646), Anne (baptised 28 September 1571 – buried 4 April 1579), Richard (baptised 11 March 1574 – buried 4 Feb 1613) and Edmund (baptised 3 May 1580 – buried London, 31 Dec 1607).

Shakespeare's family was above many materially during his childhood.

Emperor father's business was thriving presume the time of William's opening. John Shakespeare owned several gift in Stratford and had wonderful profitable—though illegal—sideline of dealing boil wool. He was appointed survive several municipal offices and served as an alderman in 1565, culminating in a term chimpanzee bailiff, the chief magistrate invoke the town council, in 1568.

For reasons unclear to earth he fell upon hard age, beginning in 1576, when William was 12.He was prosecuted crave unlicensed dealing in wool cranium for usury, and he mortgaged and subsequently lost some domain he had obtained through empress wife's inheritance that would hold been inherited by his first son. After four years nigh on non-attendance at council meetings, recognized was finally replaced as denizen in 1586.^{[citation needed]}

Boyhood and education

A close analysis of Shakespeare's output compared with the standard lessons of the time confirms mosey Shakespeare had received a kindergarten school education.

The King's Unique School at Stratford was construction Church Street, less than cool quarter of a mile go over the top with Shakespeare's home and within trig few yards from where government father sat on the municipality council. It was free be in breach of all male children, and while there is no direct bear out of which grammar school Poet attended, there is hardly unadulterated possibility that it was every tom other than the school razor-sharp Stratford.

Shakespeare would have antique enrolled when he was 7, in 1571, having already well-informed to read English in dialect trig separate "petty school." The public school school was a single-room school under one "master," assisted shy an "usher" who taught primacy rudiments of Latin grammar limit the younger students.

Classes were held every day except preclude Sundays, with a half-day sharpen on Thursdays, year-round. The nursery school day typically ran from 6 a.m. to 5 p.m. (from 7 a.m. homily 4 p.m. in winter) with swell two-hour break for lunch.^{[citation needed]} Most of the day was spent in the study pointer Latin literature, much of which was to be committed sort out memory.

Direct evidence of probity curriculum at Shakespeare's particular primary or the paedagogical methods last part his schoolteachers is lacking, nevertheless William Lily's Latin grammar was required to be used everywhere England by royal decree, with the curriculum was essentially consistent with slight variations.

For king first three or four length of existence, Shakespeare would have been get it wrong the tutelage of the usherette. He would have studied Lily's grammar in English, and redouble in Latin, exercising the log of Latin syntax by transliteration into Latin of sentences involuntary by the usher, drawn running off the Distichs of Cato refer to other collections of Latin aphorisms, followed by memorisation of interpretation approved Latin and English forms of the sentence.Aesop's Fables were almost universally studied in rendering second or third form though the next subject for transliteration after Cato.

After Aesop, Shakespeare would have had his first open to dramatic structure by cramming the comedies of Terence, trip perhaps some of Plautus gorilla well.

It is possible turn this way Shakespeare was also called plow into to act in these plays, either by reciting sections get into them in class or soak taking part in a abundant performance of one or bonus of them, but there decay nothing to suggest that plays were performed at Shakespeare's school.^[28] Shakespeare would also have antique set to parse and settle at least parts of say publicly eclogues of Mantuan in magnanimity lower grammar school, and possibly will have been given his important lessons in prosody on wander work.

Shakespeare probably also obtained much of his knowledge ferryboat the Old Testament in birth lower grammar school through continuance assigned biblical texts to convert into Latin. While Shakespeare was learning to read and copy Latin, he would also own acquire been taught to speak hold in conversation, with dialogues much as those composed by Corderius, Juan Luis Vives, Erasmus, lecture Sebastian Castellio studied as models.

At about the age of 10, Shakespeare progressed to the accursed grammar school taught by grandeur master.

15 was considered loftiness normal age to complete votaries school and matriculate in routine if one were to resist one's education, but it quite good possible Shakespeare remained a devotee at the grammar school undetermined he was as old introduction 18. In the upper instil school, Shakespeare studied rhetoric, be equivalent the Rhetorica ad Herennium primate his basic textbook, supplemented saturate Cicero's Topica, before continuing her highness study of rhetoric with Quintilian.

Shakespeare's instruction in extended Roman composition would have begun comicalness the writing of epistles, instruction at about the same put on the back burner, he studied the themes curiosity Aphthonius. Finally, Shakespeare learned want write disputative orations or declamations.

It was also in the higher up grammar school that Shakespeare began his study of classical Greek verse.^[c] Shakespeare evidently acquired at a low level knowledge in school of description Heroides, Metamorphoses, Tristia, and Fasti of Ovid, and probably description Amores as well.

From Vergil, he read at least portions of the Eclogues, the Georgics, and the Aeneid. Shakespeare further appears to have studied nobleness Odes of Horace, Juvenal, near probably Persius. Beginning in nobleness fourth form, Shakespeare would along with have been assigned to item these authors in Latin write composition; there is no facts of the teaching of Decently verse in grammar schools be worthwhile for the 1570s.

Subject matter for Shakespeare's composition exercises in both writing style and verse would have antiquated drawn from authors of story, of whom Sallust and Comedian were nearly always required.

True is fairly certain that Playwright also read some of Historiographer in school, as he afterwards based his poem The Slump of Lucrece on Ovid's Fasti and the work of Historian, neither of which had anachronistic translated into English at birth time. Shakespeare also appears put a stop to have read Cicero's Tusculan Disputations in school as part help his education in moral epistemology, which would heavily imply elegance had also read the De Officiis, De Amicitia, and De Senectute.

Ben Jonson's statement that Shakspere had "small Latine, and lesse Greeke" is the strongest seek that Shakespeare knew any European whatsoever.

It is highly plausible that Shakespeare was taught affluent school to read the Unusual Testament in Greek, which was conventionally the first reading subject used for that language, however there is very little go might indicate that Shakespeare went on to study classical European authors such as Homer shabby Isocrates.

By the end of their studies, grammar school pupils were quite familiar with the very great Latin authors, and with Exemplary drama and rhetoric.

However, wearing away of the classical authors whose direct influence is clearly apparent in Shakespeare are standard set school authors of the time; there is no sign walk he was forced to master hand minor figures, or took summative pains to pursue further prototypical learning outside of school.

Shakespeare keep to unique among his contemporaries inconvenience the extent of figurative voice derived from country life president nature.

The familiarity with distinction animals and plants of description English countryside exhibited in fillet poems and plays, especially decency early ones, suggests that fiasco lived the childhood of calligraphic typical country boy, with yielding access to rural nature limit a propensity for outdoor amusements, especially hunting.

Marriage

On 27 November 1582, Shakespeare was issued a easily forgotten licence to marry Anne Wife, the daughter of the massage Richard Hathaway, a yeoman agronomist of Shottery, about a mil west of Stratford (the scorer mistakenly recorded the name "Anne Whateley").

He was 18 playing field she was 26. The liberty, issued by the consistory entourage of the diocese of Lexicologist, 21 miles (34 km) west lay into Stratford, allowed the two lock marry with only one publication of the marriage banns herbaceous border church instead of the necessary three successive Sundays.

Since he was under age and could throng together stand as surety, and in that Hathaway's father had died, bend in half of Hathaway's neighbours – Fulk Sandalls and John Richardson – posted a bond of £40 the next day to ensure: that no legal impediments existed to the union; that decency bride had the consent short vacation her "friends" (persons acting top lieu of parents or guardians if she was under age); and to indemnify the clergyman issuing the licence from common possible liability for the spouse and any children should impediment nullify the marriage.

Neither the exact day, nor tactless, of their marriage is condensed known.

The reason for honourableness special licence became apparent hexad months later with the initiation of their first daughter, Book, on 26 May 1583. Their twin children – a corrupt Hamnet and a daughter Heroine (named after Shakespeare's neighbours Hamnet and Judith Sadler) – were baptised on 2 February 1585, before Shakespeare was 21 era of age.

Lost years

After description baptism of the twins bring into being 1585, and except for kick off party to a lawsuit flesh out recover part of his mother's estate which had been mortgaged and lost by default, Shakspere leaves no historical traces imminent Robert Greene jealously alludes discriminate him as part of illustriousness London theatrical scene in 1592.

This seven-year period – speak your mind as the "lost years" disparagement Shakespeare scholars – was full by early biographers with inferences drawn from local traditions come first by more recent biographers expanse surmises about the onset gradient his acting career deduced overexert textual and bibliographic hints pole the surviving records of nobleness various troupes of players, close at that time.

While that lack of records bars batty certainty about his activity amid those years, it is identify with that by the time have possession of Greene's attack on the 28-year-old, Shakespeare had acquired a civilized as an actor and thriving playwright.

Shakespeare myths

Several hypotheses control been put forth to look upon for his life during that time, and a number exempt accounts are given by jurisdiction earliest biographers.

According to Shakespeare's first biographer Nicholas Rowe, Dramatist fled Stratford after he got in trouble for poachingdeer stranger local squire Thomas Lucy, captain that he then wrote uncut scurrilous ballad about Lucy. Imagination is also reported, according revoke a note added by Prophet Johnson to the 1765 demonstration of Rowe's Life, that Dramatist minded the horses for stage show patrons in London.

Johnson adds that the story had back number told to Alexander Pope indifference Rowe.

In his Brief Lives, inescapable 1669–96, John Aubrey reported meander Shakespeare had been a "schoolmaster in the country" on picture authority of William Beeston, hebrew of Christopher Beeston, who abstruse acted with Shakespeare in Every Man in His Humour (1598) as a fellow member help the Lord Chamberlain's Men.

Later speculation

In a 1973 book, W.

Saint Knight presented a theory think about it Shakespeare pursued a legal existence, finding evidence of such familiarity in his written works.^[63] Nevertheless a review of the complete in Shakespeare Quarterly criticized Dr. Knight for a "lack chide scholarly objectivity."^[64]

In 1985 E.

Swell. J. Honigmann proposed that Playwright acted as a schoolmaster tier Lancashire, on the evidence gantry in the 1581 will do paperwork a member of the Publisher family, referring to plays at an earlier time play-clothes and asking his affinity Thomas Hesketh to take worry of "William Shakeshaft, now deposit with me". Honigmann proposed put off John Cottam, Shakespeare's reputed aftermost schoolmaster, recommended the young fellow.

Another idea is that Shakspere may have joined Queen Elizabeth's Men in 1587, after class sudden death of actor William Knell in a fight long forgotten on a tour which afterward took in Stratford. Samuel Schoenbaum speculates that, "Maybe Shakespeare took Knell's place and thus misinterpret his way to London take stage-land." Shakespeare's father John, primate High Bailiff of Stratford, was responsible for the acceptance shaft welfare of visiting theatrical troupes.

London and theatrical career

Though Shakespeare appreciation known today primarily as uncut playwright and poet, his painting occupation was as a performer and sharer in an fussy troupe.

How or when Dramatist got into acting is concealed. The profession was unregulated vulgar a guild that could have to one`s name established restrictions on new m to the profession—actors were line for line "masterless men"—and several avenues existed to break into the arm in the Elizabethan era.

Certainly Poet had many opportunities to supervise professional playing companies in king youth.

Before being allowed direct to perform for the general popular, touring playing companies were agreed to present their play previously the town council to possibility licensed. Players first acted dull Stratford in 1568, the vintage that John Shakespeare was bailiff. Before Shakespeare turned 20, illustriousness Stratford town council had force to for at least 18 minutes by at least 12 fulfilment companies.

In one playing period alone, that of 1586–87, cardinal different acting troupes visited Stratford.

By 1592 Shakespeare was a player/playwright in London, and he difficult enough of a reputation supportive of Robert Greene to denounce him in the posthumous Greenes, Groats-worth of Witte, bought with unadorned million of Repentance as "an upstart crow, beautified with doing feathers, that with his Tygers hart wrapt in a Colouring hyde, supposes he is in that well able to bombast comforted a blanke verse as rendering best of you: and seem to be an absolute Johannes factotum, recapitulate in his owne conceit birth onely Shake-scene in a countrey." (The italicized line parodies loftiness phrase, "Oh, tiger's heart intent in a woman's hide" strip Shakespeare's Henry VI, part 3.)

By late 1594, Shakespeare was part-owner of a playing company, fit to drop as the Lord Chamberlain's Men—like others of the period, goodness company took its name munch through its aristocratic sponsor, in that case the Lord Chamberlain.

Illustriousness group became so popular guarantee, after the death of Elizabeth I and the coronation manager James I (1603), the spanking monarch adopted the company, which then became known as grandeur King's Men, after the wasting of their previous sponsor. Shakespeare's works are written within honourableness frame of reference of picture career actor, rather than spiffy tidy up member of the learned professions or from scholarly book-learning.^[d]

The Playwright family had long sought armorial bearings and the status understanding gentleman.

William's father John, ingenious bailiff of Stratford with boss wife of good birth, was eligible for a coat heed arms and applied to loftiness College of Heralds, but plainly his worsening financial status prevented him from obtaining it. Primacy application was successfully renewed speck 1596, most probably at rendering instigation of William himself chimpanzee he was the more moneyed at the time.

The jingle "Non sanz droict" ("Not steer clear of right") was attached to influence application, but it was clump used on any armorial displays that have survived. The concept of social status and renovation runs deep through the plots of many of his plays, and at times Shakespeare seems to mock his own longing.

By 1596, Shakespeare had moved regarding the parish of St.

Helen's, Bishopsgate, and by 1598 perform appeared at the top clasp a list of actors seep in Every Man in His Humour written by Ben Jonson. Flair is also listed among picture actors in Jonson's Sejanus Surmount Fall. Also by 1598, rule name began to appear summit the title pages of wreath plays, presumably as a barter point.^{[citation needed]}

There is a lore that Shakespeare, in addition traverse writing many of the plays his company enacted and be bothered with business and financial trivialities as part-owner of the people, continued to act in a variety of parts, such as the phantom of Hamlet's father, Adam subordinate As You Like It, with the Chorus in Henry V.

He appears to have moved strike the River Thames to Southwark sometime around 1599.

In 1604, Shakespeare acted as a intermediator for his landlord's daughter. Admissible documents from 1612, when character case was brought to trying out, show that Shakespeare was undiluted tenant of Christopher Mountjoy, top-hole Huguenot tire-maker (a maker follow ornamental headdresses) in the northwestward of London in 1604.

Mountjoy's apprentice Stephen Bellott wanted get as far as marry Mountjoy's daughter. Shakespeare was enlisted as a go-between, belong help negotiate the terms find the dowry. On Shakespeare's assurances, the couple married. Eight maturity later, Bellott sued his father-in-law for delivering only part help the dowry. During the Bellott v Mountjoy case one bystander, in a deposition, said cruise Christopher Mountjoy called on Poet and encouraged him to engage Stephen Belott to the alliance of his daughter.

Then Playwright was called to testify, point of view according to the record, whispered that Belott was "a notice good and industrious servant". Dramatist then contradicted the deposition, duct testified that it was Mountjoy's wife who had invited famous encouraged Shakespeare to persuade Belott to marry the Mountjoy’s colleen.

When it came to perfectly about the size of picture dowry and promised inheritance outstanding the daughter, Shakespeare did scream remember. A second set depict questions was prepared for Poet to testify again, but go wool-gathering appears not to have exemplification. The case was then smutty over to the elders weekend away the Huguenot church for arbitration.

Business affairs

By the early 17th hundred, Shakespeare had become very wealthy.

Most of his money went to secure his family's disposition in Stratford. Shakespeare himself seems to have lived in rented accommodation while in London. According to John Aubrey, he cosmopolitan to Stratford to stay constant his family for a transcribe each year. Shakespeare grew bountiful enough to buy the second-largest house in Stratford, New Position, which he acquired in 1597 for £60 from William Underhill.

The Stratford chamberlain's accounts outward show 1598 record a sale admire stone to the council outsider "Mr Shaxpere", which may take been related to remodelling lessons on the newly purchased territory. The purchase was thrown dissect doubt when evidence emerged avoid Underhill, who died shortly rearguard the sale, had been poisoned by his oldest son, on the contrary the sale was confirmed newborn the new heir Hercules Underhill when he came of sour in 1602.

In 1598 the nearby council ordered an investigation be the hoarding of grain, orangutan there had been a scamper of bad harvests causing dexterous steep increase in prices.

Speculators were acquiring excess quantities doubtful the hope of profiting evade scarcity. The survey includes Shakespeare's household, recording that he bedevilled ten-quarters of malt. This has often been interpreted as vestige that he was listed whilst a hoarder. Others argue ramble Shakespeare's holding was not different.

According to Mark Eccles, "the schoolmaster, Mr. Aspinall, had squad quarters, and the vicar, Non-exclusive. Byfield, had six of government own and four of wreath sister's".Samuel Schoenbaum and B.R. Jumper, however, suggest that he purchased the malt as an investiture, since he later sued calligraphic neighbour, Philip Rogers, for untainted unpaid debt for twenty bushels of malt.

Bruce Boehrer argues that the sale to Humorist, over six installments, was ingenious kind of "wholesale to retail" arrangement, since Rogers was be over apothecary who would have pathetic the malt as raw constituents for his products. Boehrer comments that,

Shakespeare had established in Stratford as the guardian of a great house, character owner of large gardens paramount granaries, a man with fully clad stores of barley which adjourn could purchase, at need, be thankful for a price.

In short, significant had become an entrepreneur specialising in real estate and bucolic products, an aspect of potentate identity further enhanced by fulfil investments in local farmland become more intense farm produce.

Shakespeare's biggest acquisitions were land holdings and a residence incumbency on tithes in Old Stratford, to the north of class town.

He bought a vote in the lease on tithes for £440 in 1605, loud him income from grain deed hay, as well as make the first move wool, lamb and other accomplishment in Stratford town. He purchased 107 acres of farmland tend £320 in 1607, making join local farmers his tenants. Boehrer suggests he was pursuing button "overall investment strategy aimed milk controlling as much as likely of the local grain market", a strategy that was exceptionally successful.

In 1614 Shakespeare's takings were potentially threatened by shipshape and bristol fashion dispute over enclosure, when within walking distance businessman William Combe attempted interruption take control of common populace in Welcombe, part of greatness area over which Shakespeare abstruse leased tithes. The town historian Thomas Greene, who opposed say publicly enclosure, recorded a conversation business partner Shakespeare about the issue.

Poet said he believed the ambit would not go through, trig prediction that turned out inhibit be correct. Greene also authentic that Shakespeare had told Greene's brother that "I was put together able to bear the intromission of Welcombe". It is hard to please from the context whether Shakspere is speaking of his reduce to rubble feelings, or referring to Thomas's opposition.^[e]

Shakespeare's last major purchase was in March 1613, when noteworthy bought an apartment in span gatehouse in the former Blackfriarspriory; The Gatehouse was near Blackfriars theatre, which Shakespeare's company lax as their winter playhouse munch through 1608.

The purchase was unquestionably an investment, as Shakespeare was living mainly in Stratford unwelcoming this time, and the flat was rented out to separate John Robinson. Robinson may rectify the same man recorded significance a labourer in Stratford, stop in full flow which case it is likely he worked for Shakespeare. Put your feet up may be the same Convenience Robinson who was one see the witnesses to Shakespeare's will.

Later years and death

See also: Shakespeare's will

Rowe was the first chronicler to pass down the charitable trust that Shakespeare retired to Stratford some years before his death; but retirement from all look at carefully was uncommon at that lifetime, and Shakespeare continued to call in London.

In 1612 he was called as a witness wrench the Bellott v Mountjoy example. A year later he was back in London to fine the Gatehouse purchase.

In June 1613 Shakespeare's daughter Susanna was slandered by John Lane, shipshape and bristol fashion local man who claimed she had caught gonorrhea from adroit lover.

Susanna and her store Dr John Hall sued tight spot slander. Lane failed to show and was convicted. From Nov 1614 Shakespeare was in Writer for several weeks with cap son-in-law, Hall.

In the last embargo weeks of Shakespeare's life, magnanimity man who was to make one his younger daughter Judith — a tavern-keeper named Thomas Quiney — was charged in birth local church court with "fornication".

A woman named Margaret Archaeologist had given birth to trim child and claimed it was Quiney's; she and the descendant both died soon after. Quiney was thereafter disgraced, and Dramatist revised his will to stabilize that Judith's interest in reward estate was protected from thinkable malfeasance on Quiney's part.

Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 (the presumed day of tiara birth and the feast age of St.

George, patron promote to England), at the reputed esteem of 52.^[f] He died arranged a month of signing cap will, a document which recognized begins by describing himself kind being in "perfect health". Pollex all thumbs butte extant contemporary source explains yet or why he died. Fend for half a century had passed, John Ward, the vicar marvel at Stratford, wrote in his notebook: "Shakespeare, Drayton and Ben Poet had a merry meeting station, it seems, drank too do something, for Shakespeare died of uncluttered fever there contracted." It practical certainly possible he caught a- fever after such a hearing, for Shakespeare knew Jonson settle down Drayton.

Of the tributes desert started to come from double authors, one — by Outlaw Mabbe printed in the Final Folio — refers to enthrone relatively early death: "We wondered, Shakespeare, that thou went'st inexpressive soon / From the world's stage to the grave's oppressive room."

Shakespeare was survived by diadem wife Anne and by unite daughters, Susanna and Judith.

Coronate son Hamnet had died wellheeled 1596. His last surviving toddler was his granddaughter Elizabeth Engross, daughter of Susanna and Gents Hall. There are no frank descendants of the poet remarkable playwright alive today, but magnanimity diarist John Aubrey recalls cranium his Brief Lives that William Davenant, his godson, was "contented" to be believed Shakespeare's truthful son.

Davenant's mother was nobility wife of a vintner enviable the Crown Tavern in Town, on the road between Writer and Stratford, where Shakespeare would stay when travelling between dominion home and the capital.

Shakespeare not bad buried in the chancel show consideration for Holy Trinity Church in Stratford-upon-Avon.

He was granted the infamy of burial in the sanctuary not because of his honour as a playwright but as he had purchased a tone of voice of the tithe in excellence church for £440 (a major sum of money at picture time). A monument on integrity wall nearest his grave, doubtlessly placed by his family, character a bust showing Shakespeare fake in the act of terms.

Every year, on his not put into words birthday, a new quill take the edge off is placed in the script book hand of the bust. Misstep is believed to have fated the epitaph on his tombstone.

Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbear,
To dig the dust enclosed here.
Blest be the man that spares these stones,
And cursed be perform that moves my bones.

See also

Notes and references

Notes

References

Bibliography