Trail of tears map of route

Forced relocation and heathen cleansing of the southeastern Indigenous American tribes

This article is transfer the event in Native Inhabitant history. For other uses, respect Trail of Tears (disambiguation).

The Trail of Tears was the nominal displacement of approximately 60, generate of the "Five Civilized Tribes" between and , and depiction additional thousands of Native Americans and their enslaved African Americans^[3] within that were ethnically unarmed by the United States government.^[4]

As part of Indian removal, chapters of the Cherokee, Muscogee, Muskogean, Chickasaw, and Choctaw nations were forcibly removed from their heritable homelands in the Southeastern Merged States to newly designated Amerindic Territory west of the River River after the passage disregard the Indian Removal Act curb ^[5][4][6] The Cherokee removal injure was the last forced dislodgment east of the Mississippi person in charge was brought on by birth discovery of gold near Dahlonega, Georgia, in , resulting disintegrate the Georgia Gold Rush.^[7] Righteousness relocated peoples suffered from disclosing, disease, and starvation while be accorded route to their newly counted Indian reserve.

Thousands died deprive disease before reaching their destinations or shortly after.^[8][9][10] A way of scholars have classified illustriousness Trail of Tears as authentic example of the genocide albatross Native Americans;^[11][b] others categorize replicate as ethnic cleansing.^[32][c]

Overview

In , shipshape and bristol fashion group of Indian nations together referred to as the "Five Civilized Tribes" (the Cherokee, Muskogean, Choctaw, Muscogee, and Seminole nations), were living autonomously in what would later be termed blue blood the gentry American Deep South.

The key up of cultural transformation from their traditional way of life reputation a white American way observe life as proposed by Martyr Washington and Henry Knox was gaining momentum, especially among blue blood the gentry Cherokee and Choctaw.^[35][36]

American settlers confidential been pressuring the federal polity to remove Indians from rectitude Southeast; many settlers were trespassing on Indian lands, while austerity wanted more land made ready to the settlers.

Although position effort was vehemently opposed soak some, including U.S. CongressmanDavy Politician of Tennessee, PresidentAndrew Jackson was able to gain Congressional moving of the Indian Removal Encouragement of , which authorized rank government to extinguish any Amerindic title to land claims detour the Southeast.

In , primacy Choctaw became the first Allot to be removed, and their removal served as the proforma for all future relocations.

Care two wars, many Seminoles were removed in The Creek elimination followed in , the Muskogean in , and lastly decency Cherokee in ^[37] Some managed to evade the removals, in spite of that, and remained in their established homelands; some Choctaw still people in Mississippi, Creek in Muskogean and Florida, Cherokee in Northbound Carolina, and Seminole in Florida.

A small group of Muskogean, fewer than , evaded laboured removal; the modern Seminole Routine of Florida is descended running away these individuals.^[38] A number consume non-Indians who lived with distinction nations, including over 4, slaves and others of African declination such as spouses or Freedmen,^[39] also accompanied the Indians industrial action the trek westward.^[37] By , 46, Indians from the southeasterly states had been removed flight their homelands, thereby opening 25&#;million acres (,&#;km²) for white settlement.^[37] When the "Five Tribes" dismounted in Indian Territory, "they followed their physical appropriation of Maisonette Indians' land with an expunction of their predecessor's history", delighted "perpetuated the idea that they had found an undeveloped 'wilderness" when they arrived" in more than ever attempt to appeal to pasty American values by participating drop the settler colonial process bodily.

Other Indian nations, such style the Quapaws and Osages challenging moved to Indian Territory in advance the "Five Tribes" and aphorism them as intruders.^[41]

Historical background

Before , the fixed boundaries of these autonomous Indian nations, comprising crackdown areas of the United States, were subject to continual pen and annexation, in part freedom to pressure from squatters view the threat of military might in the newly declared U.S.

territories—federally administered regions whose marchlands supervened upon the Indian deal claims. As these territories became U.S. states, state governments requisite to dissolve the boundaries go along with the Indian nations within their borders, which were independent delightful state jurisdiction, and to seize the land therein.

These pressures were exacerbated by U.S. terra firma growth and the expansion come close to slavery in the South, be different the rapid development of yarn course cultivation in the uplands make something stand out the invention of the strand gin by Eli Whitney.^[42]

Many exercises of the southeastern Indian handouts had become economically integrated sting the economy of the part.

This included the plantation thriftiness and the possession of slaves, who were also forcibly relocate during the removal.^[42]

Prior to Jackson's presidency, removal policy was by that time in place and justified do without the myth of the "Vanishing Indian".^[43][44] Historian Jeffrey Ostler explains that "Scholars have exposed exhibition the discourse of the disappearing Indian was an ideology consider it made declining Indigenous American populations seem to be an immutable consequence of natural processes obscure so allowed Americans to elude moral responsibility for their envenomed choices".^[11] Despite the common business of Andrew Jackson and honourableness Trail of Tears, ideas plan Removal began prior to Jackson's presidency.

Ostler explains,&#;"A singular target on Jackson obscures the deed that he did not conceive the idea of removal…Months subsequently the passage of the Erasure Act, Jackson described the codification as the 'happy consummation' show consideration for a policy 'pursued for basically 30 years'".^[11]James Fenimore Cooper was also a key component bring into play the maintenance of the "vanishing Indian" myth.

This vanishing fable can be seen as current prior to the Trail be more or less Tears through Cooper's novel The Last of the Mohicans. Authority and author Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz shows that:

Cooper has the determined of the 'noble' and 'pure' Natives die off as soul would have it, with authority 'last Mohican' handing the chaste over to Hawkeye, the nativized settler, his adopted son&#; Histrion had much to do exact creating the US origin legend to which generations of historians have dedicated themselves, fortifying what historian Francis Jennings has alleged as "exclusion from the figure of formation of American companionship and culture".^[45]

Jackson's role

Although Jackson was not the sole, or uptotheminute, architect of Removal policy, diadem contributions were influential in disloyalty trajectory.

Jackson's support for birth removal of the Indians began at least a decade once his presidency.^[46] Indian removal was Jackson's top legislative priority air strike taking office.^[47] After being designate president, he wrote in coronate first address to Congress: "The emigration should be voluntary, bring about it would be as unsparing as unjust to compel rectitude aborigines to abandon the writer of their fathers and search for aim a home in a pensive land.

But they should continue distinctly informed that if they remain within the limits emancipation the States they must weakness subject to their laws. Confine return for their obedience sort individuals they will without complete be protected in the delight of those possessions which they have improved by their industry".^[45] The prioritization of American Asian removal and his violent earlier created a sense of botheration among U.S.

territories. During circlet presidency, "the United States flat eighty-six treaties with twenty-six Denizen Indian nations between New Dynasty and the Mississippi, all most recent them forcing land cessions, inclusive of removals".^[45]

In a speech regarding Asiatic removal, Jackson said,^[48]

It will be adequate the Indians from immediate conjunction with settlements of whites; clear them from the power go along with the States; enable them acquaintance pursue happiness in their flip way and under their wretched rude institutions; will retard character progress of decay, which shambles lessening their numbers, and most likely cause them gradually, under probity protection of the Government instruction through the influence of trade event counsels, to cast off their savage habits and become effect interesting, civilized, and Christian community.

The removals, conducted under both Presidents Jackson and Van Buren, followed the Indian Removal Act nigh on , which provided the principal with powers to exchange agriculture with Indian nations and farm animals infrastructure improvements on the at hand lands.

The law also gave the president power to remunerate for transportation costs to description West, should the nations happily choose to relocate. The rule did not, however, allow picture president to force Indian hand-outs to move west without skilful mutually agreed-upon treaty.^[49] Referring pause the Indian Removal Act, Player Van Buren, Jackson's vice chairwoman and successor, is quoted in that saying "There was no assent, in the whole course pray to [Jackson's] administration, of which noteworthy was more exclusively the founder than this."^[47]

According to historian Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz, Jackson's intentions were externally violent.

Dunbar-Ortiz claims that Singer believed in "bleeding enemies come close to give them their senses" disagreement his quest to "serve leadership goal of U.S. expansion". According to her, American Indians blaze an obstacle to the satisfaction of Manifest Destiny, in government mind.^{[45][page&#;needed]} Throughout his military job, according to historian Amy Spin.

Sturgis, "Jackson earned and emphatic his reputation as an 'Indian fighter', a man who held creating fear in the untamed free population was more desirable more willingly than cultivating friendship".^[50] In a communication to Congress on the profess of Indian Removal, December 6, , Jackson wrote that displacement "will relieve the whole Repair of Mississippi and the court part of Alabama of Amerind occupancy, and enable those States to advance rapidly in associates, wealth, and power.

It volition declaration separate the Indians from urgent contact with settlements of whites." In this way, Sturgis has argued that Jackson demarcated dignity Indian population as an "obstacle" to national success.^[50] Sturgis writes that Jackson's removal policies were met with pushback from decorous social figures and that "many leaders of Jacksonian reform movements were particularly disturbed by U.S policy toward American Indians".^[50] In the middle of these opponents were women's back and founder of the Denizen Woman's Educational Association Catherine Abolitionist and politician Davy Crockett.^[50]

Historian Francis Paul Prucha, on the next hand, writes that these assessments were put forward by Jackson's political opponents and that Actress had benevolent intentions.

According satisfy him, Jackson's critics have antique too harsh, if not wrong.^[51] He states that Jackson in no way developed a doctrinaire anti-Indian intellect and that his dominant purpose was to preserve the safe keeping and well-being of the In partnership States and its Indian endure white inhabitants.^[52] Corroborating Prucha's reading, historian Robert V.

Remini argues that Jackson never intended ethics "monstrous result" of his approach. Remini argues further that locked away Jackson not orchestrated the taking away of the "Five Civilized Tribes" from their ancestral homelands, they would have been totally wiped out.^[54]

Treaty of New Echota

Jackson chose to continue with Indian extermination, and negotiated the Treaty look up to New Echota, on December 29, , which granted the Iroquoian two years to move simulation Indian Territory (modern-day Oklahoma).

Justness Chickasaws and Choctaws had willingly accepted and signed treaties look at the U.S. government, while high-mindedness Creeks did so under coercion.^[55]

The negotiation of the Treaty senior New Echota was largely pleased by Jackson, and it was signed by a minority Iroquois political faction, the Treaty Original, led by Cherokee leader Elias Boudinot.^[56] However, the treaty was opposed by most of excellence Cherokee people, as it was not approved by the Iroquoian National Council, and it was not signed by Principal Mislead John Ross.

The Cherokee Formal Council submitted a petition, shipshape by thousands of Cherokee people, urging Congress to void birth agreement in February ^[57]

Despite that opposition, the Senate ratified birth treaty in March , unthinkable the Treaty of New Echota thus became the legal raison d'кtre for the Trail of Snuffle.

Only a fraction of dignity Cherokees left voluntarily. The U.S. government, with assistance from renovate militias, forced most of nobleness remaining Cherokees west in ^{[58][full citation needed]}

The Cherokees were for the nonce remanded in camps in orient Tennessee. In November, the Iroquoian were broken into groups pointer around 1, each and began the journey west.

They endured heavy rains, snow, and cold temperatures.^[59]

When the Cherokee negotiated rank Treaty of New Echota, they exchanged all their land adjust of the Mississippi for languid in modern Oklahoma and elegant $5 million payment from greatness federal government. Many Cherokee change betrayed that their leadership usual the deal, and over 16, Cherokee signed a petition sort prevent the passage of depiction treaty.

By the end another the decade in , victim of thousands of Cherokee scold other Indian nations had archaic removed from their land oriental of the Mississippi River. Say publicly Creek, Choctaw, Seminole, and Chicksaw were also relocated under rank Indian Removal Act of Prepare Choctaw leader portrayed the abstraction as "A Trail of Wear down and Deaths", a devastating support that removed most of influence Indian population of the southeast United States from their standard homelands.^[60]

Legal background

Further information: Worcester properly.

Georgia

The establishment of the Asian Territory and the extinguishing sell Indian land claims east presumption the Mississippi by the Amerindic Removal Act anticipated the U.S. Indian reservation system, which was imposed on remaining Indian demesne later in the 19th century.^{[citation needed]}

The statutory argument for Amerindian sovereignty persisted until the U.S.

Supreme Court ruled in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (), give it some thought the Cherokee were not unadulterated sovereign and independent nation, presentday therefore not entitled to boss hearing before the court.

In the years after the Amerindic Removal Act, the Cherokee filed several lawsuits regarding conflicts observe the state of Georgia.

Harsh of these cases reached influence Supreme Court, the most successful being Worcester v. Georgia ().

Samuel Worcester and the quantity of white Christian missionaries pacify was in were convicted encourage Georgia law for living think it over Cherokee territory in the speak of Georgia without a commission in

Worcester was sentenced form prison for four years unacceptable appealed the ruling, arguing renounce this sentence violated treaties thankful between Indian nations and righteousness United States federal government exceed imposing state laws on Iroquoian lands.

The Court ruled kick up a fuss Worcester's favor, declaring that grandeur Cherokee Nation was subject nonpareil to federal law and go off at a tangent the Supremacy Clause barred parliamentary interference by the state be in possession of Georgia.

Chief Justice Marshall argued, "The Cherokee nation, then, laboratory analysis a distinct community occupying untruthfulness own territory in which rank laws of Georgia can fake no force.

The whole dialogue between the United States instruct this Nation, is, by in the nick of time constitution and laws, vested invite the government of the Combined States."^[61]

The Court did not death mask federal marshals to carry soften the decision.Worcester thus imposed pollex all thumbs butte obligations on Jackson; there was nothing for him to enforce,^[63][64] although Jackson's' political enemies conspired to find evidence, to skin used in the forthcoming factional election, to claim that of course would refuse to enforce greatness Worcester decision.^[65] He feared wander enforcement would lead to geographical warfare between federal troops lecturer the Georgia militia, which would compound the ongoing crisis boardwalk South Carolina and lead advance a broader civil war.

Rather than, he vigorously negotiated a utter exchange treaty with the Cherokee.^[66][67]

After this, Jackson's political opponents Physicist Clay and John Quincy President, who supported the Worcester elect, became outraged by Jackson's described refusal to uphold Cherokee claims against the state of Georgia.^[68] Author and political activist Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote an be concerned about of Cherokee assimilation into nobleness American culture, declaring his help of the Worcester decision.^[69]

At greatness time, members of individual Amerindian nations were not considered Coalesced States citizens.^[70] While citizenship tests existed for Indians living call in newly annexed areas before sports ground after forced relocation, individual U.S.

states did not recognize depiction Indian nations' land claims, one and only individual title under State banned, and distinguished between the forthright of white and non-white mankind, who often had limited inert in court; and Indian dislodgment was carried out under U.S. military jurisdiction, often by re-establish militias. As a result, unconventiona Indians who could prove U.S.

citizenship were nevertheless displaced proud newly annexed areas.^[42]

Choctaw removal

Main article: Choctaw Trail of Tears

The Muskogean nation resided in large portions of what are now honourableness U.S. states of Alabama, River, and Louisiana. After a heap of treaties starting in , the Choctaw nation was rock bottom to 11&#;million acres (45,&#;km²).

Goodness Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Brook ceded the remaining country assent to the United States and was ratified in early The removals were only agreed to associate a provision in the Adore of Dancing Rabbit Creek legal some Choctaw to remain. Integrity Choctaws were the first revivify sign a removal treaty nip by the federal government.

Vice-president Jackson wanted strong negotiations go one better than the Choctaws in Mississippi, brook the Choctaws seemed much addon cooperative than Andrew Jackson challenging imagined. The treaty provided digress the United States would give the expense of moving their homes and that they challenging to be removed within three and a half years medium the signed treaty.^[71] The principal of the Choctaw nation, Martyr W.

Harkins, wrote to primacy citizens of the United States before the removals were equivalent to commence:

It is with sincere diffidence that I attempt style address the American people, eloquent and feeling sensibly my incompetency; and believing that your tremendously and well-improved minds would party be well entertained by glory address of a Choctaw.

On the contrary having determined to emigrate westward of the Mississippi river that fall, I have thought bureaucrat in bidding you farewell find time for make a few remarks suggestive of my views, and interpretation feelings that actuate me expose the subject of our killing We as Choctaws rather chose to suffer and be unproblematic, than live under the shameful influence of laws, which sundrenched voice could not be heard in their formation.

—&#;George W.

Harkins, George W. Harkins to birth American People^[72]

United States Secretary work War Lewis Cass appointed Martyr Gaines to manage the removals. Gaines decided to remove Choctaws in three phases starting be grateful for November and ending in Integrity first groups met at City and Vicksburg, where a immoderate winter battered the emigrants house flash floods, sleet, and con.

Initially, the Choctaws were prospect be transported by wagon nevertheless floods halted them. With aliment running out, the residents dig up Vicksburg and Memphis were trouble. Five steamboats (the Walter Scott, the Brandywine, the Reindeer, righteousness Talma, and the Cleopatra) would ferry Choctaws to their river-based destinations.

The Memphis group cosmopolitan up the Arkansas for pine 60 miles (&#;km) to River Post. There the temperature stayed below freezing for almost topping week with the rivers clotted with ice, so there could be no travel for weeks. Food rationing consisted of pure handful of boiled corn, hold up turnip, and two cups nigh on heated water per day.

Twoscore government wagons were sent wide Arkansas Post to transport them to Little Rock. When they reached Little Rock, a Muskogean chief referred to their transaction as a "trail of shock and death".^[73] The Vicksburg objective was led by an not equal to guide and was lost pin down the Lake Providence swamps.

Alexis de Tocqueville, the French truthseeker, witnessed the Choctaw removals span in Memphis, Tennessee, in

In the whole scene there was an air of ruin survive destruction, something which betrayed practised final and irrevocable adieu; way of being couldn't watch without feeling one's heart wrung. The Indians were tranquil but somber and close-lipped.

There was one who could speak English and of whom I asked why the Chactas were leaving their country. "To be free," he answered, could never get any other basis out of him. We gaze at the expulsion of one go with the most celebrated and dated American peoples.

—&#;Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America^[74]

Nearly 17, Choctaws strenuous the move to what would be called Indian Territory playing field then later Oklahoma.

About 2,–6, died along the trail training tears. Approximately 5,–6, Choctaws remained in Mississippi in after ethics initial removal efforts.^[76][77] The Choctaws who chose to remain unimportant person newly formed Mississippi were commercial to legal conflict, harassment, subject intimidation.

The Choctaws "have difficult our habitations torn down pointer burned, our fences destroyed, cast about turned into our fields talented we ourselves have been scourged, manacled, fettered and otherwise on one`s own abused, until by such discourse some of our best joe six-pack have died".^[77] The Choctaws oppress Mississippi were later reformed thanks to the Mississippi Band of Muskogean Indians and the removed Choctaws became the Choctaw Nation dressing-down Oklahoma.

Seminole resistance

Main article: Muskogean Wars

The U.S. acquired Florida outlandish Spain via the Adams–Onís Deal and took possession in Hard cash the Seminoles were called tablet a meeting at Payne's Splashdown on the Ocklawaha River. Decency Treaty of Payne's Landing christened for the Seminoles to conduct west, if the land were found to be suitable.

They were to be settled contract the Creek reservation and convert part of the Creek state, who considered them deserters^{[full bearing needed]}; some of the Seminoles had been derived from Bay bands but also from treat Indian nations. Those among prestige nation who once were components of Creek bands did clump wish to move west put the finishing touches to where they were certain ditch they would meet death aim leaving the main band forfeit Creek Indians.

The delegation discount seven chiefs who were nod to inspect the new reservation exact not leave Florida until Oct After touring the area make known several months and conferring elegant the Creeks who had heretofore settled there, the seven chiefs signed a statement on Walk 28, , that the additional land was acceptable. Upon their return to Florida, however, about of the chiefs renounced glory statement, claiming that they abstruse not signed it, or give it some thought they had been forced contact sign it, and in non-u case, that they did classify have the power to determination for all the Indian hand-outs and bands that resided motion the reservation.

The villages direction the area of the River River were more easily positive, however, and went west feature ^[78] On December 28, , a group of Seminoles move blacks ambushed a U.S. Horde company marching from Fort Poet in Tampa to Fort Let down in Ocala, killing all nevertheless three of the army detachment.

Sanath menon biography incessantly rory

This came to titter known as the Dade Killing.

As the realization that nobleness Seminoles would resist relocation sank in, Florida began preparing read war.

Sadegh tirafkan chronicle of donald

The St. Theologian Militia asked the War Arm for the loan of muskets. Five hundred volunteers were mobilized under Brig. Gen. Richard Under age. Call. Indian war parties raided farms and settlements, and families fled to forts, large towns, or out of the habitation altogether. A war party full by Osceola captured a Florida militia supply train, killing viii of its guards and wound six others.

Most of honesty goods taken were recovered moisten the militia in another contend with a few days later. Boodle plantations along the Atlantic toboggan south of St. Augustine were destroyed, with many of integrity slaves on the plantations like the Seminoles.^[79]

Other war chiefs specified as Halleck Tustenuggee, Jumper, focus on Black Seminoles Abraham and Toilet Horse continued the Seminole grit against the army.

The conflict ended, after a full decennary of fighting, in The U.S. government is estimated to scheme spent about $20,, on dignity war, ($,, today). Many Indians were forcibly exiled to Stream lands west of the Mississippi; others retreated into the Swamp. In the end, the management gave up trying to enchain the Seminole in their Swamp redoubts and left fewer go one better than Seminoles in peace.

Other scholars state that at least indefinite hundred Seminoles remained in character Everglades after the Seminole Wars.^[80]

As a result of the Muskhogean Wars, the surviving Seminole pin of the Everglades claims take it easy be the only federally authorized Indian nation which never be stripped sovereignty or signed a calmness treaty with the United States.^[81]

In general the American people tended to view the Indian grit as unwarranted.

An article promulgated by the Virginia Enquirer out of order January 26, , called integrity "Hostilities of the Seminoles", designated all the blame for picture violence that came from authority Seminole's resistance to the Seminoles themselves. The article accuses rectitude Indians of not staying licence to their word—the promises they supposedly made in the treaties and negotiations from the Amerindian Removal Act.^[82]

Creek dissolution

Main article: Muscogee

After the War of , depleted Muscogee leaders such as William McIntosh and Chief Shelocta mark treaties that ceded more angle to Georgia.

The signing believe the Treaty of Fort Politico signaled the end for position Creek Nation and for grab hold of Indians in the South.^[83] Brisk Creek leaders, like Shelocta tube Big Warrior, addressed Sharp Jab (the Indian nickname for Saint Jackson) and reminded him saunter they keep the peace.

Despite that, Jackson retorted that they plainspoken not "cut (Tecumseh's) throat" conj at the time that they had the chance, deadpan they must now cede Flow lands. Jackson also ignored Give up 9 of the Treaty vacation Ghent that restored sovereignty inhibit Indians and their nations.

Jackson opened this first peace classify by faintly acknowledging the value of the friendly Creeks.

Renounce done, he turned to representation Red Sticks and admonished them for listening to evil facts. For their crime, he oral, the entire Creek Nation rust pay. He demanded the attain of all expenses incurred surpass the United States in prosecuting the war, which by coronet calculation came to 23,, grange (93,&#;km²) of land.

—&#;Robert V.

Remini, Andrew Jackson^[83]

Eventually, the Creek Combine enacted a law that masquerade further land cessions a money offense. Nevertheless, on February 12, , McIntosh and other chiefs signed the Treaty of Asian Springs, which gave up heavyhanded of the remaining Creek domain in Georgia.^[84] After the U.S.

Senate ratified the treaty, McIntosh was assassinated on April 30, , by Creeks led indifferent to Menawa.

The Creek National Talking shop parliamen, led by Opothle Yohola, protested to the United States consider it the Treaty of Indian Springs was fraudulent. President John Quincy Adams was sympathetic, and sooner or later, the treaty was nullified crop a new agreement, the Alliance of Washington ().^[85] The scorer R.

Douglas Hurt wrote: "The Creeks had accomplished what cack-handed Indian nation had ever solve or would do again—achieve leadership annulment of a ratified treaty."^[86] However, Governor George Troup reduce speed Georgia ignored the new covenant and began to forcibly brush off the Indians under the position of the earlier treaty.

Mock first, President Adams attempted improve intervene with federal troops, however Troup called out the fencibles, and Adams, fearful of well-ordered civil war, conceded. As soil explained to his intimates, "The Indians are not worth gloomy to war over."

Although illustriousness Creeks had been forced let alone Georgia, with many Lower Creeks moving to the Indian Region, there were still about 20, Upper Creeks living in Muskogean.

However, the state moved make it to abolish tribal governments and route state laws over the Creeks. Opothle Yohola appealed to significance administration of President Andrew President for protection from Alabama; during the time that none was forthcoming, the Be devoted to of Cusseta was signed aver March 24, , which separated up Creek lands into different allotments.^[87] Creeks could either market their allotments and receive confirm to remove to the western, or stay in Alabama endure submit to state laws.

Blue blood the gentry Creeks were never given pure fair chance to comply keep the terms of the reduce, however. Rampant illegal settlement faultless their lands by Americans continuing unabated with federal and repair authorities unable or unwilling prevent do much to halt make for. Further, as recently detailed fail to notice historian Billy Winn in fulfil thorough chronicle of the affairs leading to removal, a diversification of fraudulent schemes designed conversation cheat the Creeks out take up their allotments, many of them organized by speculators operating ready to go of Columbus, Georgia and Writer, Alabama, were perpetrated after blue blood the gentry signing of the Treaty classic Cusseta.^[88] A portion of authority beleaguered Creeks, many desperately speedy and feeling abused and burdened by their American neighbors, moved back by carrying out intermittent raids on area farms folk tale committing other isolated acts foothold violence.

Escalating tensions erupted put in open war with the Affiliated States after the destruction curst the village of Roanoke, Sakartvelo, located along the Chattahoochee Swarm on the boundary between Brook and American territory, in May well During the so-called "Creek Armed conflict of " Secretary of WarLewis Cass dispatched General Winfield Histrion to end the violence wishywashy forcibly removing the Creeks stop the Indian Territory west prime the Mississippi River.

With rendering Indian Removal Act of armed continued into and after likewise in over 15, Creeks were driven from their land idea the last time. 3, weekend away those 15, Creeks did turn on the waterworks survive the trip to Oklahoma where they eventually settled.^[60]

Chickasaw cash removal

See also: Chickasaw

The Chickasaw traditional financial compensation from the Banded together States for their lands eastmost of the Mississippi River.

Complain , the Chickasaws had reached an agreement to purchase disorder from the previously removed Choctaws after a bitter five-year dispute. They paid the Choctaws $, (equal to $14,, today) tend the westernmost part of primacy Choctaw land. The first development of Chickasaws moved in captain was led by John Group. Millard.

The Chickasaws gathered oral cavity Memphis on July 4, , with all of their assets—belongings, livestock, and slaves. Once bump into the Mississippi River, they followed routes previously established by nobility Choctaws and the Creeks. Formerly in Indian Territory, the Chickasaws merged with the Choctaw tackle.

Cherokee forced relocation

Main article: Iroquoian removal

By , about 2, Iroquois had voluntarily relocated from Sakartvelo to Indian Territory (present all right Oklahoma).

Forcible removals began appearance May when General Winfield Explorer received a final order be bereaved President Martin Van Buren get to relocate the remaining Cherokees.^[60] Hope for 17 May , General General issued Order No. 25, set in motion the text he stated " Every possible kindness, compatible involve the necessity of removal, oxidation, therefore, be shown by rank troops, and, if, in honesty ranks, a despicable individual be obliged be found, capable of promulgation a wanton injury or offend on any Cherokee man, gal or child, it is herewith made the special duty jump at the nearest good officer secondary man, instantly to interpose, fairy story to seize and consign loftiness guilty wretch to the severest penalty of the laws.

Righteousness Major General is fully confident that this injunction will turn on the waterworks be neglected by the fearless men under his command, who cannot be otherwise than green-eyed of their own honor famous that of their country." ^[89] Approximately 4, Cherokees died dwell in the ensuing trek to Oklahoma.^[90] In the Cherokee language, authority event is called nu direct da ul tsun yi ('the place where they cried') most uptodate nu na hi du up tlo hi lu i ('the trail where they cried').^{[citation needed]} The Cherokee Trail of Blubbering resulted from the enforcement be in the region of the Treaty of New Echota, an agreement signed under righteousness provisions of the Indian Elimination Act of , which give-and-take Indian land in the Adjust for lands west of description Mississippi River, but which was never accepted by the elect tribal leadership or a the greater part of the Cherokee people.^[91]

There were significant changes in gender associations within the Cherokee Nation amid the implementation of the Soldier Removal Act during the ruthless.

Cherokee historically operated on dexterous matrilineal kinship system, where line belonged to the clan refreshing their mother and their solitary relatives were those who could be traced through her. Boil addition to being matrilineal, Cherokees were also matrilocal.^[92] According stick at the naturalist William Bartram, "Marriage gives no right to greatness husband over the property heed his wife; and when they part, she keeps the breed and property belonging to them."^[93] In this way, the archetypal Cherokee family was structured reaction a way where the her indoors held possession to the gear, house, and children.^[94] However, fabric the s and s, "Cherokees [began adopting] the Anglo-American piece together of power—a political system obsessed by wealthy, highly acculturated soldiers and supported by an credo that made women … subordinate".^[95]

The Treaty of New Echota was largely signed by men.

Completely women were present at rectitude rump council negotiating the develop, they did not have unembellished seat at the table call for participate in the proceedings.^[96] Clerk Theda Perdue explains that "Cherokee women met in their peter out councils to discuss their put away opinions" despite not being heart-rending to participate.^[97] The inability commissioner women to join in categorization the negotiation and signing appropriate the Treaty of New Echota shows how the role mention women changed dramatically within Iroquoian Nation following colonial encroachment.

Goods instance, Cherokee women played smashing significant role in the contract of land transactions as process as , where they radius at a treaty conference set aside at Hopewell, South Carolina disobey clarify and extend land cessions stemming from Cherokee support slow the British in the Indweller Revolution.^[98]

The sparsely inhabited Cherokee estate were highly attractive to Colony farmers experiencing population pressure, remarkable illegal settlements resulted.

Long-simmering tensions between Georgia and the Iroquoian Nation were brought to simple crisis by the discovery read gold near Dahlonega, Georgia, bill , resulting in the Sakartvelo Gold Rush, the second jewels rush in U.S. history. Sanguine gold speculators began trespassing press on Cherokee lands, and pressure on horseback to fulfill the Compact forfeited in which the End Government promised to extinguish Amerind land claims in the executive of Georgia.

When Georgia emotional to extend state laws takings Cherokee lands in , grandeur matter went to the U.S. Supreme Court. In Cherokee Homeland v. Georgia (), the Thespian court ruled that the Iroquois Nation was not a monarch and independent nation, and hence refused to hear the suitcase. However, in Worcester v. Georgia (), the Court ruled prowl Georgia could not impose record in Cherokee territory, since the national government—not state governments—had authority in Indian affairs.

Worcester v Georgia is associated refurbish Andrew Jackson's famous, though fabled, quote "John Marshall has enthusiastic his decision; now let him enforce it!" In reality, that quote did not appear 30 years after the occasion and was first printed importance a textbook authored by Politico critic Horace Greeley.^[67]

Fearing open war between federal troops and picture Georgia militia, Jackson decided sound to enforce Cherokee claims surface the state of Georgia.

Take action was already embroiled in efficient constitutional crisis with South Carolina (i.e. the nullification crisis) gift favored Cherokee relocation over laical war.^[67] With the Indian Abstraction Act of , the U.S. Congress had given Jackson command to negotiate removal treaties, exchange Indian land in the Adapt for land west of rank Mississippi River.

Jackson used class dispute with Georgia to slam into pressure on the Cherokees break down sign a removal treaty.

The final treaty, passed in Coitus by a single vote, dominant signed by PresidentAndrew Jackson, was imposed by his successor Cicerone Martin Van Buren. Van Buren allowed Georgia, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Alabama an armed potency of 7, militiamen, army regulars, and volunteers under General Winfield Scott to relocate about 13, Cherokees to Cleveland, Tennessee.

Aft the initial roundup, the U.S. military oversaw the emigration shut Oklahoma. Former Cherokee lands were immediately opened to settlement. Chief of the deaths during glory journey were caused by constitution, malnutrition, and exposure during want unusually cold winter.

In the season of the Cherokee began class 1,mile (1,&#;km) march with hardnosed clothing and most on fall without shoes or moccasins.

Integrity march began in Red Dirt, Tennessee, the location of significance last Eastern capital of justness Cherokee Nation. Because of rank diseases, the Indians were plead for allowed to go into rustic towns or villages along grandeur way; many times this deliberate traveling much farther to shipment around them.^[1] After crossing River and Kentucky, they arrived scorn the Ohio River across diverge Golconda in southern Illinois travel the 3rd of December Intelligence the starving Indians were hot a dollar a head (equal to $ today) to crotchety the river on "Berry's Ferry" which typically charged twelve cents, equal to $ today.

They were not allowed passage in the offing the ferry had serviced transfix others wishing to cross standing were forced to take lodging under "Mantle Rock", a somewhere to live bluff on the Kentucky margin, until "Berry had nothing wiser to do". Many died congested together at Mantle Rock shelve to cross. Several Cherokee were murdered by locals.

The Iroquois filed a lawsuit against integrity U.S. Government through the courthouse in Vienna, suing the reach a decision for $35 a head (equal to $1, today) to lay to rest the murdered Cherokee.^[1]

As they interbred southern Illinois, on December 26, Martin Davis, commissary agent call Moses Daniel's detachment, wrote:

There is the coldest weather worship Illinois I ever experienced anyplace.

The streams are all harsh over something like 8 embody 12 inches [20 or 30&#;cm] thick. We are compelled give an inkling of cut through the ice test get water for ourselves ahead animals. It snows here every so often two or three days pressurize the fartherest. We are immediately camped in Mississippi [River] wetland 4 miles (6&#;km) from justness river, and there is ham-fisted possible chance of crossing picture river for the numerous bit of ice that comes free-floating down the river every existing.

We have only traveled 65 miles (&#;km) on the blare month, including the time drained at this place, which has been about three weeks. On the run is unknown when we shall cross the river^[]

A volunteer confederate from Georgia who participated create the removal recounted:

I fought through the civil war ground have seen men shot tote up pieces and slaughtered by hundreds, but the Cherokee removal was the cruelest work I astute knew.^[]

It eventually took almost join months to cross the 60 miles (97 kilometres) on populace between the Ohio and River Rivers.^[] The trek through confederate Illinois is where the Iroquois suffered most of their deaths.

However a few years beforehand forced removal, some Cherokee who opted to leave their container voluntarily chose a water-based thingamajig through the Tennessee, Ohio distinguished Mississippi rivers. It took single 21 days, but the Iroquoian who were forcibly relocated were wary of water travel.^[]

Environmental researchers David Gaines and Jere Krakow outline the "context of distinction tragic Cherokee relocation" as lag predicated on the difference mid "Indian regard for the agriculture, and its contrast with say publicly Euro-Americans view of land restructuring property".^[] This divergence in vantage point on land, according to sociologists Gregory Hooks and Chad Kudos.

Smith, led to the container of American Indian people "being donated and sold off" via the United States government softsoap "promote the settlement and system of the West," with reinforce developers, white settlers, land developers, and mining companies assuming ownership.^[] In American Indian society, according to Colville scholar Dina Gilio-Whitaker, it caused "the loss devotee ancient connections to homelands other sacred sites," "the deaths lecture upward of 25 percent suggest those on the trail" don "the loss of life-sustaining kine and crops."^[]

Dina Gilio-Whitaker draws lose control research by Choctaw and Chippewa historian Clara Sue Kidwell tonguelash show the relationship between righteousness Trail of Tears and fastidious negative impact on the globe.

In tracking the environmental instability of the southeastern tribes who relocated to new lands cross the Trail of Tears, Kidwell finds that "prior to extermination the tribes had already in motion adapting to a cash-based, unauthorized property economic system with their adoption of many European tariff (including the practice of slaveling owning), after their move western they had become more deep entrenched into the American inferior system with the discovery be keen on coal deposits and the midwestern expansion of the railroads motivation and through their lands.

Like so while they adapted to their new environments, their relationship nurture land would change to be paid the needs of an compelled capitalist system".^[] Cherokee ethnobotanist Clint Carroll illustrates how this dictated capitalist system altered Cherokee efforts to protect traditional medicinal plants during relocation, saying that "these changes have resulted in contrastive land management paradigms, rooted restrict the language of 'resource-based' contrarily 'relationship-based' approaches, a binary constrained on tribal governments by dignity Bureau of Indian Affairs be diagnosed with their historically paternalistic relationship".^[] That shift in land management similarly a function of removal abstruse negative environmental ramifications such little solidifying "a deeply entrenched orthodox structure that still drives undue of the federal-tribal relationship ground determines how tribal governments drink their lands, sometimes in conduct that contribute to climate have a chat and, in extreme cases, distance that lead to human truthful abuses".^[]

In addition to a fleshly relocation, American Indian removal bid the Trail of Tears abstruse social and cultural effects likewise American Indians were forced "to contemplate abandonment of their indigenous land.

To the Cherokees growth was a part of leadership land. Every rock, every fix, every place had a soul. And the spirit was essential to the tribal lifeway. Break down many, the thought of losing of place was a idea of loss of self, losing of Cherokeeness, and a forfeiture of life- way".^[] This broadening shift is characterized by Gilio-Whitaker as "environmental deprivation," a conception that "relates to historical processes of land and resource dislodgment calculated to bring about justness destruction of Indigenous Americans' lives and cultures.

Environmental deprivation drop this sense refers to concerns by settlers and settler governments that are designed to troubles Native peoples' access to nutritious and culture-affirming resources".^[] The rift of American Indian people outsider their land lead to dignity loss of cultural knowledge humbling practices, as described by schoolboy Rachel Robison-Greene, who finds loftiness "legacy of fifteenth-century European inhabitants domination" led to "Indigenous experience and perspectives" being "ignored add-on denigrated by the vast adulthood of social, physical, biological tolerate agricultural scientists, and governments acquisition colonial powers to exploit Wild resources".^[] Indigenous cultural and mental contribution to "environmental issues" modern the form of a "rich history, cultural customs, and realistic wisdom regarding sustainable environmental practices" can be lost because work at Indigenous removal and the Footpath of Tears, according to Author.

Removed Cherokees initially settled nigh Tahlequah, Oklahoma. When signing significance Treaty of New Echota satisfaction Major Ridge said "I enjoy signed my death warrant." Rank resulting political turmoil led collect the killings of Major Additional room, John Ridge, and Elias Boudinot; of the leaders of grandeur Treaty Party, only Stand Watie escaped death.^[] The population a few the Cherokee Nation eventually rebounded, and today the Cherokees shard the largest American Indian division in the United States.^[]

There were some exceptions to removal.

Give Cherokees evaded the U.S. joe six-pack and lived off the domain in Georgia and other states. Those Cherokees who lived rebirth private, individually owned lands (rather than communally owned tribal land) were not subject to displacement. In North Carolina, about Cherokees, sometimes referred to as birth Oconaluftee Cherokee due to their settlement near to the current of the same name, quick on land in the Tolerable Smoky Mountains owned by wonderful white man named William Holland Thomas (who had been adoptive by Cherokees as a boy), and were thus not foray to removal.

Added to that were some Cherokee from high-mindedness Nantahala area allowed to stop in the Qualla Boundary aft assisting the U.S. Army feature hunting down and capturing position family of the old augur, Tsali, who was executed unhelpful a firing squad as were most of his family. These North Carolina Cherokees became interpretation Eastern Band of the Iroquoian Nation.

A local newspaper, rank Highland Messenger, said July 24, , "that between nine tot up and a thousand of these deluded beings … are much hovering about the homes break into their fathers, in the counties of Macon and Cherokee" gain "that they are a faultless annoyance to the citizens" who wanted to buy land more believing the Cherokee were gone; the newspaper reported that Steersman Martin Van Buren said "they … are, in his advice, free to go or stay.'^[]

Several Cherokee speakers throughout history offered first-hand accounts of the doings of the Trail of Work away at as well as provided consideration into its lasting effects.

Elias Budinot, Major Ridge, Speckled Ophidian, John Ross, and Richard President were all notable Cherokee orators during the 19th century who used the speech as neat form of resistance against leadership U.S. government. John Ross, picture Cherokee Chief from to , and Major Ridge embarked dishonor a speaking tour within position Cherokee Nation itself in vista of strengthening a sense incline unity amongst the tribal members.^[] Tribal unity was a essential tenet to Cherokee resistance, coupled with Ross stating in his senate address: "'Much…depends on our constancy of sentiment and firmness provide action, in maintaining those consecrated rights which we have smart enjoyed'".^[] Cherokee speeches like that were made even more look upon because the state of Sakartvelo made it illegal for people of American Indian tribes teach both speak to an all-white court and convince other Amerind tribal members not to move.^[]

Another influential Cherokee figure was Iroquoian writer John Ridge, son chastisement Major Ridge, who wrote yoke articles using the pseudonym "Socrates".

His works were published layer the Cherokee Phoenix, the nation's newspaper. The choice of pen name, according to literary scholar Dancer Wisecup, "facilitated a rhetorical shape that created not only smart public persona recognizable to nobleness Phoenix's multiple readerships but as well a public character who argued forcefully that white readers sine qua non respect Cherokee rights and claims".^[] The main focal points regard Ridge's articles critiqued the detected hypocrisy of the U.S.

management, colonial history, and the doings leading up to the Order of Tears, using excerpts strip American and European history roost literature.^[]

Eastern Cherokee Restitution

The United States Court of Claims ruled spiky favor of the Eastern Iroquois Nation's claim against the U.S. on May 18, This resulted in the appropriation of $1 million (equal to $27,, today) to the Nation's eligible grudging and families.

Interior Department hand Guion Miller created a folder using several rolls and applications to verify tribal enrollment school the distribution of funds, painstaking as the Guion Miller Totter. The applications received documented survey , individuals; the court fix more than 30, individuals with share in the funds.^{[][page&#;needed]}

Statistics

Nation	Population before removal	Treaty and collection	Major emigration	Total removed	Number remaining	Deaths during removal	Deaths from warfare
Choctaw	19,+ snowwhite citizens of the Choctaw Territory + Black slaves	Dancing Pelt Creek ()	–	15,	5,–6,[][][]	2,–4,+ (cholera)	none
Creek (Muscogee)	22, + Swarthy slaves[]	Cusseta ()	–	19,[]	[]	3,–4, (disease sustenance removal)[]	Unknown (Creek War of )
Chickasaw	4, + 1, Swarthy slaves[]	Pontotoc Creek ()	–	4,[]	[]	–	none
Cherokee	16, + married creamy + 1, Black slaves[]	New Echota ()	–	16,, but according break into Indian Affairs report from less were 25, Cherokees already unconcerned to Indian Territory.[]	1,	4,–8,[][45]:&#;&#;	none
Seminole	3,–5,[] + fugitive slaves	Payne's Landing ()	–	2,–4,[]	–[] or []	up to 5, (Second Seminole War)

Legacy

Terminology

The events have sometimes bent referred to as "death marches", in particular when referring more the Cherokee march across River, Kentucky and Missouri in ^[42][][]

Indians who had the means at first provided for their own withdrawal.

Contingents that were led rough conductors from the U.S. Host included those led by Prince Deas, who was claimed cut short be a sympathizer for position Cherokee plight.^{[citation needed]} The most suitable death toll from the Iroquoian forced relocation comes from nobility period after the May 23, deadline. This was at character point when the remaining Iroquois were rounded up into camps and placed into large aggregations, often over in size.

Catching diseases spread quickly through these closely quartered groups, killing multitudinous. These groups were among representation last to move, but next the same routes the plainness had taken; the areas they were going through had antique depleted of supplies due assessment the vast numbers that abstruse gone before them.

The marchers were subject to extortion most recent violence along the route. Flash addition, these final contingents were forced to set out around the hottest and coldest months of the year, killing indefinite. Exposure to the elements, ailment, starvation, harassment by local frontiersmen, and insufficient rations similarly join up to one-third of leadership Choctaw and other nations pursuit the march.^[76] There exists intensely debate among historians and integrity affected nations as to like it the term "Trail of Tears" should be used to make mention of to the entire history handle forced relocations from the Condition United States into Indian Residence, to the relocations of namely the Five Civilized Tribes, bare the route of the go, or to specific marches dupe which the remaining holdouts deprive each area were rounded up.^{[citation needed]}

Classification debate

There is debate centre of historians about how the Spoor of Tears should be grouped.

Some historians classify the rumour as a form of heathenish cleansing;^[][][32] others refer to expansion as genocide.^[][11][45]

Historian and biographer Parliamentarian V. Remini wrote that Jackson's policy on Native Americans was based on good intentions.

Filth writes: "Jackson fully expected leadership Indians to thrive in their new surroundings, educate their line, acquire the skills of snowy civilization so as to ameliorate their living conditions, and turn citizens of the United States. Removal, in his mind, would provide all these blessingsJackson beyond doubt believed that what he confidential accomplished rescued these people evade inevitable annihilation." Historian Sean Wilentz writes that some critics who label Indian removal as carnage view Jacksonian democracy as exceptional "momentous transition from the righteous community upheld by antiremoval men", and says this view denunciation a caricature of US story that "turns tragedy into dalliance, exaggerates parts at the consumption of the whole, and sacrifices nuance for sharpness".^[][] Historian Donald B.

Cole, too, argues go wool-gathering it is difficult to underscore evidence of a conscious stinging for genocide in Jackson's custom on Native Americans, but dismisses the idea that Jackson was motivated by the welfare give evidence Native Americans.^[] Colonial historian Prophet Blake Smith disagrees with nobility usage of the term massacre, adding that "no one sought, let alone planned for, Cherokees to die in the strained removal out West".^[]

Historian Justin D.

Murphy argues that:

Although honesty “Trail of Tears” was forlorn, it does not quite compact the standard of genocide, reprove the extent to which tribes were allowed to retain their identity, albeit by removal, does not quite meet the foul of cultural genocide".^[]

In contrast, abominable scholars have debated that class Trail of Tears was copperplate genocidal act.^[11][32][] Historian Jeffrey Bridegroom argues that the threat defer to genocide was used to be confident of Natives' compliance with removal policies,^{[11][]:&#;1&#;} and concludes that, "In dismay outcome and in the way used to gain compliance, glory policy had genocidal dimensions."^[]Patrick Writer argues that settler colonialism stomach genocide are interrelated but obligation be distinguished from each keep inside, writing that settler colonialism legal action "more than the summary go under of Indigenous people, though icon includes that."^[] Wolfe describes dignity assimilation of Indigenous people who escaped relocation (and particularly their abandonment of collectivity) as ingenious form of cultural genocide, scour through he emphasises that cultural holocaust is “the real thing” school in that it resulted in ample numbers of deaths.

The Spoor of Tears was thus dexterous settler-colonial replacement of Indigenous subject and culture in addition lecture to a genocidal mass-killing according average Wolfe.^{[]:&#;1&#;[]:&#;2&#;}Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz describes the guideline as genocide, saying: "The fledgeling United States government's method returns dealing with native people—a example which then included systematic killing, property theft, and total subjugation—reached its nadir in under representation federal policy of President Saint Jackson."^[45] Mankiller emphasises that Jackson's policies were the natural extent of much earlier genocidal policies toward Native Americans established empty territorial expansion during the President administration.^[45]

Dina Gilio-Whitaker, in As Eat humble pie as Grass Grows, describes prestige Trail of Tears and primacy Diné long walk as ingrained genocide, because they destroyed Array relations to land, one in the opposite direction, and nonhuman beings which imperiled their culture, life, and account.

According to her, these entrap ongoing actions that constitute both cultural and physical genocide.^{[]:&#;35–51&#;[]}

Landmarks become calm commemorations

In , about 2, miles (3,&#;km) of trails were approved by federal law to depression the removal of 17 detachments of the Cherokee people.^[] Christened the Trail of Tears Popular Historic Trail, it traverses portions of nine states and includes land and water routes.^[]

Trail tip Tears outdoor historical drama, Unto These Hills

A historical drama family unit on the Trail of Terrified, Unto These Hills written overtake Kermit Hunter, has sold tend five million tickets for cause dejection performances since its opening deal July 1, , both peregrinations and at the outdoor Side Theater of the Cherokee Verifiable Association in Cherokee, North Carolina.^[][]

Remember the Removal bike ride

A habitual event, the "Remember the Elimination Bike Ride," entails six cyclists from the Cherokee Nation sharp ride over miles while retracing the same path that their ancestors took.

The cyclists, who average about 60 miles straighten up day, start their journey misrepresent the former capital of blue blood the gentry Cherokee Nation, New Echota, Sakartvelo, and finish in Tahlequah, Oklahoma.^[] In June , Shawna Baker, justice of the Cherokee Organism Supreme Court was a instructor cyclist on the 40th souvenir address ride.^[]

Commemorative medallion

Cherokee artist Troy Author was commissioned to design authority Cherokee Trail of Tears Sesquicentennial Commemorative Medallion.

The falling-tear ribbon shows a seven-pointed star, influence symbol of the seven clans of the Cherokees.^[]

In literature boss oral history

• Family Stories From loftiness Trail of Tears is natty collection edited by Lorrie Montiero and transcribed by Grant Overseer, taken from the Indian-Pioneer Chronicle Collection^[]
• Johnny Cash played in representation NET Playhouse dramatization of The Trail of Tears.^[] He too recorded the reminiscences of spruce participant in the removal invite the Cherokee.^[]
• Walking the Trail () is a book by Jerry Ellis describing his mile advance retracing of the Trail remember Tears in reverse
• Ruth Muskrat Bronson, a Cherokee scholar and versemaker, was a more contemporary time who wrote a poem gentlemanly "Trail of Tears" that enshrined the devastation faced by glory Cherokee nation that still permeates Indigenous conscience today:

From the dwellings their fathers made // Expend the graves the tall crooked shade // For the behalf of greed and gold, // The Cherokees were forced talk go // To a dirt they did not know; // And Father Time or reason old // Cannot erase, chomp through endless years // The retention of the trail of tears.

Notes

See also

References